Indo-Aryan languages
Indo-Aryan | |
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Indic | |
Geographic distribution | South Asia |
Linguistic classification | Indo-European
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Proto-language | Proto-Indo-Aryan |
ISO 639-2 / 5 | inc |
Linguasphere | 59= (phylozone) |
Glottolog | indo1321[1] |
1978 map showing geographical distribution of the major Indo-Aryan languages. (Urdu is included under Hindi. Romani, Domari, and Lomavren are outside the scope of the map.) Dotted/striped areas indicate where multilingualism is common. Central Dardic Eastern Northern Northwestern Southern Western |
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The Indo-Aryan or Indic languages is the dominant language family of the Indian subcontinent. They constitute a branch of the Indo-Iranian languages, itself a branch of the Indo-European language family. In the early 21st century, Indo-Aryan languages were spoken by more than 800 million people, primarily in India, Bangladesh, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka.[2]
The largest in terms of speakers are Hindustani (Hindi-Urdu, about 329 million),[3]Bengali (242 million),[4]Punjabi (about 100 million),[5] and other languages, with a 2005 estimate placing the total number of native speakers at nearly 900 million.[6]
Contents
1 History
1.1 Proto-Indo-Aryan
1.2 Indian subcontinent
1.2.1 Old Indo-Aryan
1.2.2 Middle Indo-Aryan (Prakrits)
1.2.3 New Indo-Aryan
1.2.3.1 Dialect continuum
1.2.3.2 Medieval Hindustani
1.3 Mitanni-Aryan
1.4 Romani, Lomavren, and Domari languages
1.4.1 Domari
1.4.2 Lomavren
1.4.3 Romani
2 Classification
2.1 Dardic
2.2 Northern Zone
2.3 Northwestern Zone
2.4 Western Zone
2.5 Central Zone (Madhya or Hindi)
2.6 Eastern Zone
2.7 Southern Zone languages
2.7.1 Marathi-Konkani
2.7.2 Insular Indic
2.8 Unclassified
3 Phonology
3.1 Consonants
3.1.1 Stop positions[22]
3.1.2 Nasals[23]
3.2 Charts
4 Language and dialect
5 Language comparison chart
5.1 Interrogative pronouns
5.2 Personal pronouns
5.3 Numerals
6 See also
7 References
8 Further reading
9 External links
History
Proto-Indo-Aryan
Proto-Indo-Aryan, or sometimes Proto-Indic, is the reconstructed proto-language of the Indo-Aryan languages. It is intended to reconstruct the language of the pre-Vedic Indo-Aryans. Proto-Indo-Aryan is meant to be the predecessor of Old Indo-Aryan (1500–300 BCE) which is directly attested as Vedic and Mitanni-Aryan. Despite the great archaicity of Vedic, however, the other Indo-Aryan languages preserve a small number of archaic features lost in Vedic.
Indian subcontinent
Proto-Indo-Aryan (reconstructed)
Old Indo-Aryan (ca. 1500–300 BCE)
- early Old Indo-Aryan: Vedic Sanskrit (1500 to 500 BCE)
- late Old Indo-Aryan: Epic Sanskrit, Classical Sanskrit (500 to 300 BCE)
Middle Indo-Aryan or Prakrits, Old Odia (ca. 300 BCE to 1500 CE) [see]
Early Modern Indo-Aryan (Late Medieval India)
- early Dakhini and emergence of the Khariboli dialect
- early Dakhini and emergence of the Khariboli dialect
Old Indo-Aryan
The earliest evidence of the group is from Mitanni Indo-Aryan.[7] The only evidence of it is a few proper names and specialized loanwords.[7]
Rigvedic Indo-Aryan has been used in the ancient preserved religious hymns of the Rigveda, the earliest Vedic literature.
From the Rigvedic language, "Sanskrit" (literally "put together", meaning perfected or elaborated) developed as the prestige language of culture, science and religion, as well as the court, theatre, etc. Sanskrit is, by convention, referred to by modern scholars as 'Classical Sanskrit' in contradistinction to the so-called 'Rigvedic Sanskrit', which is largely intelligible to Sanskrit speakers.[citation needed]
Middle Indo-Aryan (Prakrits)
Outside the learned sphere of Sanskrit, vernacular dialects (Prakrits) continued to evolve. The oldest attested Prakrits are the Buddhist and Jain canonical languages Pali and Ardhamagadhi Prakrit, respectively. By medieval times, the Prakrits had diversified into various Middle Indo-Aryan languages. Apabhraṃśa is the conventional cover term for transitional dialects connecting late Middle Indo-Aryan with early Modern Indo-Aryan, spanning roughly the 6th to 13th centuries. Some of these dialects showed considerable literary production; the Śravakacāra of Devasena (dated to the 930s) is now considered to be the first Hindi book.
The next major milestone occurred with the Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent in the 13th–16th centuries. Under the flourishing Turco-Mongol Mughal Empire, Persian became very influential as the language of prestige of the Islamic courts due to adoptation of the foreign language by the Mughal emperors. However, Persian was soon displaced by Hindustani. This Indo-Aryan language is a combination with Persian, Arabic, and Turkic elements in its vocabulary, with the grammar of the local dialects.
The two largest languages that formed from Apabhraṃśa were Bengali and Hindustani; others include Sindhi, Gujarati, Odia, Marathi, and Punjabi.
New Indo-Aryan
Dialect continuum
The Indo-Aryan languages of North India and Pakistan form a dialect continuum. What is called "Hindi" in India is frequently Standard Hindi, the Sanskritized version of the colloquial Hindustani spoken in the Delhi area since the Mughals. However, the term Hindi is also used for most of the central Indic dialects from Bihar to Rajasthan. The spoken New Indo-Aryan dialects from Assam in the east to the borders of Afghanistan in the west form a linguistic continuum across the plains of North India, Pakistan and Bangladesh.
Medieval Hindustani
In the Central Zone Hindi-speaking areas, for a long time the prestige dialect was Braj Bhasha, but this was replaced in the 19th century by the Khariboli-based Hindustani. Hindustani was strongly influenced by Sanskrit and Persian, with these influences leading to the emergence of Modern Standard Hindi and Modern Standard Urdu as registers of the Hindustani language.[8][9] This state of affairs continued until the division of the British Indian Empire in 1947, when Hindi became the official language in India and Urdu became official in Pakistan. Despite the different script the fundamental grammar remains identical, the difference is more sociolinguistic than purely linguistic.[10][11][12] Today it is widely understood/spoken as a second or third language throughout South Asia[13] and one of the most widely known languages in the world in terms of number of speakers.
Mitanni-Aryan
Some theonyms, proper names and other terminology of the Mitanni exhibit an Indo-Aryan superstrate, suggest that a Indo-Aryan elite imposed itself over the Hurrians in the course of the Indo-Aryan expansion. In a treaty between the Hittites and the Mitanni, the deities Mitra, Varuna, Indra, and the Ashvins (Nasatya) are invoked. Kikkuli's horse training text includes technical terms such as aika (eka, one), tera (tri, three), panza (pancha, five), satta (sapta, seven), na (nava, nine), vartana (vartana, turn, round in the horse race). The numeral aika "one" is of particular importance because it places the superstrate in the vicinity of Indo-Aryan proper as opposed to Indo-Iranian or early Iranian (which has "aiva") in general[14]
Another text has babru (babhru, brown), parita (palita, grey), and pinkara (pingala, red). Their chief festival was the celebration of the solstice (vishuva) which was common in most cultures in the ancient world. The Mitanni warriors were called marya, the term for warrior in Sanskrit as well; note mišta-nnu (= miẓḍha, ≈ Sanskrit mīḍha) "payment (for catching a fugitive)" (M. Mayrhofer, Etymologisches Wörterbuch des Altindoarischen, Heidelberg, 1986–2000; Vol. II:358).
Sanskritic interpretations of Mitanni royal names render Artashumara (artaššumara) as Ṛtasmara "who thinks of Ṛta" (Mayrhofer II 780), Biridashva (biridašṷa, biriiašṷa) as Prītāśva "Whose Horse is Dear" (Mayrhofer II 182), Priyamazda (priiamazda) as Priyamedha "whose wisdom is dear" (Mayrhofer II 189, II378), Citrarata as Citraratha "Whose Chariot is Shining" (Mayrhofer I 553), Indaruda/Endaruta as Indrota "helped by Indra" (Mayrhofer I 134), Shativaza (šattiṷaza) as Sātivāja "Winning the Race Price" (Mayrhofer II 540, 696), Šubandhu as Subandhu "Having Good Relatives" (a name in Palestine, Mayrhofer II 209, 735), Tushratta (tṷišeratta, tušratta, etc.) as *tṷaiašaratha, Vedic Tvastar "Whose Chariot is Vehement" (Mayrhofer, Etym. Wb., I 686, I 736).
Romani, Lomavren, and Domari languages
Domari
Domari is an Indo-Aryan language spoken by older Dom people scattered across the MENA. The language is reported to be spoken as far north as Azerbaijan and as far south as central Sudan, in Turkey, Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, Iraq, Palestine, Israel, Jordan, Egypt, Sudan, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, Syria and Lebanon.[15] Based on the systematicity of sound changes, we know with a fair degree of certainty that the names Domari and Romani derive from the Indo-Aryan word ḍom.[16]
Lomavren
Lomavren is a nearly extinct mixed language, spoken by the Lom people, that arose from language contact between a language related to Romani and Domari[17] and the Armenian language.
Romani
The Romani language is usually included in the Western Indo-Aryan languages.[18] Romani — spoken mainly in various parts of Europe — is conservative in maintaining almost intact the Middle Indo-Aryan present-tense person concord markers, and in maintaining consonantal endings for nominal case – both features that have been eroded in most other modern languages of Central India. It shares an innovative pattern of past-tense person concord with the languages of the Northwest, such as Kashmiri and Shina. This is believed to be further proof that Romani originated in the Central region, then migrated to the Northwest.
There are no known historical documents about the early phases of the Romani language.
Linguistic evaluation carried out in the nineteenth century by Pott (1845) and Miklosich (1882–1888) showed that the Romani language is to be classed as a New Indo-Aryan language (NIA), not Middle Indo-Aryan (MIA), establishing that the ancestors of the Romani could not have left India significantly earlier than AD 1000.
The principal argument favouring a migration during or after the transition period to NIA is the loss of the old system of nominal case, and its reduction to just a two-way case system, nominative vs. oblique. A secondary argument concerns the system of gender differentiation. Romani has only two genders (masculine and feminine). Middle Indo-Aryan languages (named MIA) generally had three genders (masculine, feminine and neuter), and some modern Indo-Aryan languages retain this old system even today.
It is argued that loss of the neuter gender did not occur until the transition to NIA. Most of the neuter nouns became masculine while a few feminine, like the neuter अग्नि (agni) in the Prakrit became the feminine आग (āg) in Hindi and jag in Romani. The parallels in grammatical gender evolution between Romani and other NIA languages have been cited as evidence that the forerunner of Romani remained on the Indian subcontinent until a later period, perhaps even as late as the tenth century.
Classification
There can be no definitive enumeration of Indic languages because their dialects merge into one another. The major ones are illustrated here; for the details, see the dedicated articles.
The classification follows Masica (1991) and Kausen (2006).
Dardic
Kashmiri - 5.6 million speakers- Shina
Shina - 500,000 speakers
Brokskat - 10,000 speakers
Domaaki - 340 speakers
Kundal Shahi - 700 speakers
Kalkoti - 6,000 speakers
Ushoji - 2,000 speakers
Palula - 10,000 speakers
Savi - 3,000 speakers
Pashayi - 400,000 speakers- Kunar
Dameli - 5,000 speakers
Gawar-Bati - 9,500 speakers
Nangalami - 5,000 speakers
Shumashti - 1,000 speakers
- Chitral
Kalasha - 5,000 speakers
Khowar - 290,000 speakers
- Kohistani
Maiya - 200,000 speakers
Bateri - 29,000
Chilisso - 1,000 speakers
Gowro - 200 speakers
Kalami - 100,000 speakers
Tirahi - 100 speakers
Torwali - 80,000 speakers
Wotapuri-Katarqalai †
Northern Zone
- Central Pahari
Garhwali - 2.9 million speakers
Kumaoni - 2.4 million speakers
- Eastern Pahari
Nepali - 17 million speakers
Jumli - 85,000
Northwestern Zone
Dogri - 4 million speakers- Himachali
Kangri - 1.1 million speakers
Mandeali - 1.7 million
Jaunsari - 100,000 speakers
Kullu - 110,000
Pahari Kinnauri - 6,300 speakers
Mahasu Himachali - 1 million speakers
Hinduri - 30,000 speakers
Sirmauri - 400,000 speakers
- Punjabi
Punjabi - 122 million speakers- Doabi
Lahnda
Saraiki - 20 million speakers
Hindko - 3.7 million speakers
Jakati †
Pothwari - 2.5 million speakers
- Majhi
- Malwai
- Pwadhi
- Sindhi
Sindhi - 25 million speakers
Jadgali - 25,000 speakers
Kutchi - 873,000 speakers
Luwati - 5,000 speakers- Memoni
Western Zone
Ethnologue lists the following languages under the Western Zone that are not already covered in other subgroups:[19]
- Rajasthani
- Rajasthani proper - 25.8 million speakers
Bagri - 2.1 million speakers
Marwari - 22 million speakers
Mewati - 3 million speakers
Dhundari - 9.6 million speakers
Harauti - 4.7 million speakers
Mewari - 5.1 million speakers
Shekhawati - 3 million speakers
Bagri - 2.1 million speakers
Dhatki - 150,000 speakers
Malvi - 5.6 million speakers- Gujarati
Gujarati - 49 million speakers
Jandavra - 5,000 speakers
Saurashtra - 190,000 speakers
Aer - 100 speakers
Vaghri - 10,000 speakers
Vasavi - 1.2 million speakers
Koli - 1.4 million speakers
Parkari Koli - 250,000 speakers- Kachi Koli - 500,000 speakers
- Wardiyara Koli - 542,000 speakers
- Bhil
- Northern Bhil
Bauria - 27,000 speakers
Bhilori - 200,000 speakers- Magari
- Central Bhil
Bhili proper - 3.5 million speakers
Bhilali - 1.1 million speakers
Chodri - 210,000 speakers
Dhodia - 170,000 speakers
Dhanki - 140,000 speakers
Dubli - 250,000 speakers
- Bareli
Palya Bareli - 10,000 speakers
Pauri Bareli - 640,000 speakers
Rathwi Bareli - 100,000 speakers
Pardhi - 49,000 speakers
Kalto - 15,000 speakers
- Northern Bhil
Khandeshi - 1.9 million speakers
Domari - 4 million speakers
Romani - 1.5 million speakers
Northern Romani
Sinte Romani - 200,000 speakers
Carpathian Romani - 160,000 speakers
Finnish Kalo - 12,000 speakers
Baltic Romani - 35,000 speakers
Balkan Romani - 560,000 speakers
Vlax Romani - 540,000 speakers
Central Zone (Madhya or Hindi)
Parya - 4,000 speakers
- Western Hindi
Hindustani (including Standard Hindi and Standard Urdu) - 329 million speakers
Braj - 21 million speakers
Haryanvi - 8 million speakers
Bundeli - 3.1 million speakers
Kannauji - 9.5 million speakers
- Eastern Hindi
Awadhi - 3.5 million speakers
Fiji Hindi - 460,000 speakers
Bagheli - 8.4 million speakers
Chhattisgarhi - 24 million speakers
Parya historically belonged to the Central Zone but lost intelligibility with other languages of the group due to geographic distance and numerous grammatical and lexical innovations.
Eastern Zone
These languages derive from Magadhan Apabhraṃśa Prakrit.
- Bihari
Bhojpuri - 40 million speakers
Caribbean Hindustani - 166,000 speakers
Magahi/मगही - 14 million speakers
Maithili/मैथिली/মৈথিলি - 33.9 million speakers
Angika/अंगिका/অঙ্গিকা - 743,000 speakers
Khortha - 8.04 million speakers
Nagpuri - 5.1 million speakers
Kurmali - 556,089 speakers
Tharu - 1.9 million speakers
Odia (ଓଡ଼ିଆ) - 33 million speakers- Halbic
Halbi - 600,000 speakers
Bhatri - 220,000 speakers
Kamar - 40,000 speakers
Mirgan - 60,000 speakers
Nahari - 20,000 speakers
- Bengali–Assamese (বাংলা-অসমীয়া)
Assamese (অসমীয়া) - 15 million speakers
Bengali (বাংলা) - 268 million speakers (40-60 million native speakers)
Bishnupriya Manipuri (বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মনিপুরী) - 120,000 speakers
Chakma (𑄌𑄋𑄴𑄟𑄳𑄦) - 330,000 speakers
Sylheti (ꠍꠤꠟꠐꠤ/ছিলটি) - 11 million speakers
Chittagonian (চাঁটগাঁইয়া) - 16 million speakers
Rohingya/Ruáingga - 1.8 million speakers- KRNB (কোচ ৰাজবংশী/রংপুরী/কমতা)
Southern Zone languages
This group of languages developed from Maharashtri Prakrit.
It is not clear if Dakhini (Deccani, Southern Urdu) is part of Hindustani along with Standard Urdu, or a separate Persian-influenced development from Marathi.
Marathi-Konkani
Marathi (मराठी) - 73 million speakers
Phudagi - 1,000 speakers- Kadodi
Konkani (कोंकणी) - 2.26 million speakers
Katkari - 12,000 speakers
Kukna - 110,000 speakers
Varli - 600,000 speakers
Maharashtrian Konkani - 2.4 million speakers
Insular Indic
Sinhalese (සිංහල) - 17 million
Maldivian - 340,000 speakers
- Mahl - 10,000 speakers
The Insular Indic languages share several characteristics that set them apart significantly from the continental languages.
Unclassified
The following languages are related to each other, but otherwise unclassified within Indo-Aryan:
Kuswaric[20]
Danwar - 46,000 speakers
Bote-Darai - 20,000 speakers
Chinali–Lahul Lohar[21]
Chinali - 750 speakers
Lahul Lohar - 750 speakers
The following other poorly attested languages are listed as unclassified within the Indo-Aryan family by Ethnologue 17:
Kanjari (Punjabi?), Od (Marathi?), Vaagri Booli, Andh, Kumhali (perhaps in Central).
Also Degaru, Mina, Bhalay and Gowlan are all names for the Gowli caste, rather than a language.
Kholosi
- The Kholosi language is a more recently discovered Indo-Aryan language spoken in two villages in southern Iran and remains currently unclassified.
Phonology
Consonants
Stop positions[22]
The normative system of New Indo-Aryan stops consists of five points of articulation: labial, dental, "retroflex", palatal, and velar, which is the same as that of Sanskrit. The "retroflex" position may involve retroflexion, or curling the tongue to make the contact with the underside of the tip, or merely retraction. The point of contact may be alveolar or postalveolar, and the distinctive quality may arise more from the shaping than from the position of the tongue. Palatals stops have affricated release and are traditionally included as involving a distinctive tongue position (blade in contact with hard palate). Widely transcribed as [tʃ], Masica (1991:94) claims [cʃ] to be a more accurate rendering.
Moving away from the normative system, some languages and dialects have alveolar affricates [ts] instead of palatal, though some among them retain [tʃ] in certain positions: before front vowels (esp. /i/), before /j/, or when geminated. Alveolar as an additional point of articulation occurs in Marathi and Konkani where dialect mixture and others factors upset the aforementioned complementation to produce minimal environments, in some West Pahari dialects through internal developments (*t̪ɾ, t̪ > /tʃ/), and in Kashmiri. The addition of a retroflex affricate to this in some Dardic languages maxes out the number of stop positions at seven (barring borrowed /q/), while a reduction to the inventory involves *ts > /s/, which has happened in Assamese, Chittagonian, Sinhala (though there have been other sources of a secondary /ts/), and Southern Mewari.
Further reductions in the number of stop articulations are in Assamese and Romany, which have lost the characteristic dental/retroflex contrast, and in Chittagonian, which may lose its labial and velar articulations through spirantization in many positions (> [f, x]).
Stop series | Language(s) |
---|---|
/p/, /t̪/, /ʈ/, /tʃ/, /k/ | Hindi, Punjabi, Dogri, Sindhi, Gujarati, Bihari, Maithili, Sinhala, Odia, Standard Bengali, dialects of Rajasthani (except Lamani, NW. Marwari, S. Mewari) |
/p/, /t̪/, /ʈ/, /ts/, /k/ | Nepali, dialects of Rajasthani (Lamani and NW. Marwari), Northern Lahnda's Kagani, Kumauni, many West Pahari dialects (not Chamba Mandeali, Jaunsari, or Sirmauri) |
/p/, /t̪/, /ʈ/, /ts/, /tʃ/, /k/ | Marathi, Konkani, certain W. Pahari dialects (Bhadrawahi, Bhalesi, Padari, Simla, Satlej, maybe Kulu), Kashmiri |
/p/, /t̪/, /ʈ/, /ts/, /tʃ/, /tʂ/, /k/ | Shina, Bashkarik, Gawarbati, Phalura, Kalasha, Khowar, Shumashti, Kanyawali, Pashai |
/p/, /t̪/, /ʈ/, /k/ | Rajasthani's S. Mewari |
/p/, /t̪/, /t/, /ts/, /tɕ/, /k/ | E. and N. dialects of Bengali (Dhaka, Mymensing, Rajshahi) |
/p/, /t/, /k/ | Assamese |
/p/, /t/, /tʃ/, /k/ | Romani |
/t̪/, /ʈ/, /k/ (with /i/ and /u/) | Sylheti |
/t̪/, /t/ | Chittagonian |
Nasals[23]
Sanskrit was noted as having five nasal-stop articulations corresponding to its oral stops, and among modern languages and dialects Dogri, Kacchi, Kalasha, Rudhari, Shina, Saurasthtri, and Sindhi have been analyzed as having this full complement of phonemic nasals /m/ /n/ /ɳ/ /ɲ/ /ŋ/, with the last two generally as the result of the loss of the stop from a homorganic nasal + stop cluster ([ɲj] > [ɲ] and [ŋɡ] > [ŋ]), though there are other sources as well.
Charts
The following are consonant systems of major and representative New Indo-Aryan languages, as presented in Masica (1991:106–107), though here they are in IPA. Parentheses indicate those consonants found only in loanwords: square brackets indicate those with "very low functional load". The arrangement is roughly geographical.
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Language and dialect
In the context of South Asia, the choice between the appellations "language" and "dialect" is a difficult one, and any distinction made using these terms is obscured by their ambiguity. In one general colloquial sense, a language is a "developed" dialect: one that is standardised, has a written tradition and enjoys social prestige. As there are degrees of development, the boundary between a language and a dialect thus defined is not clear-cut, and there is a large middle ground where assignment is contestable.
There is a second meaning of these terms, in which the distinction is drawn on the basis of linguistic similarity. Though seemingly a "proper" linguistics sense of the terms, it is still problematic: methods that have been proposed for quantifying difference (for example, based on mutual intelligibility) have not been seriously applied in practice; and any relationship established in this framework is relative.[24]
Language comparison chart
(Note: Hindi and Urdu is in the same column as well as Chittagonian and Rohingya)
English | Dhivehi | Sanskrit | Gujarati | Rajasthani | Marathi | Hindustani | Punjabi | Sindhi | Bengali | Sylheti | Chittagonian, Rohingya | Kashmiri | Konkani | Bhojpuri | Odia | Sambalpuri Odia | Assamese | Maithili | Sinhala | Nepali | Pali | Romani | Saraiki | Garhwali |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
beautiful | reethi | sundara | sundar | futaro | sundara | sundar | sohnā | suhɳā | šundor,sudarshon | shundor | cúndor, hásin | sondar | chand, sundar | suhnar, sundar, khapsoorat | sundara | sundar | dhuniya, xundôr | sundar | sonduru, sundara, lassana | sundar | sundaro | shukar | sohnra | bigrelu |
blood | ley | rakta, loha, lohita, shoNita | lohi, khoon, rakt | ragat | rakta | khūn, rakta, lahū | lahū, ratt | ratu | rokto, lohit, lohu | roxto, lou | lou, hún, kún | ratth | rakt, ragat | khūn, lahū | rakta, lahu, rudhira | Rakat, Ruder | tez | shonit | le, rudiraya, ruhiru | ragat | ratta | rat | laho, rat | loee |
bread | roshi | rotika, polika | paũ, roṭlā | falko | poḷi, bhākarī | chapātī, roṭī | parautha, roṭi | pʰulko, maanī | (pau-)ro̊ŧi | ruti, luf | fiçá, luthi | tçhot | rot, poḷo, poḷi, chapati, pav | roṭī | pauruṭi, ruti | Ruti, Paanruti | pauruti, ruti | roṭi, sohāri | paan, roti | roṭī, paũroṭi, | manro | roti, ma(n)ri, dhodha | Palakā | |
bring | geney | anayati | lā-v | lajyo | ān- | lā- | lyā | ɖe | an- | an- | ainn- | ann | haad | lāv- | Aanantu, Aana, Aane | Aanan, Aana, Aan | an- | ān | ghenna | lyaunu | anel | ghin aa, Lai aa | l'hāṇu | |
brother | beybe | bhrātṛ, bandhu, sahodara | bhāi | beero, bhayo, veer | bhau, bandhu | bhāī | prā, pāh | bʱau | bhai, bhaiya | bai, baiya | bái | boéy | bhav, bhau | bhāī, bhaīyā | bhai, bhaina | Bhe, Dada | bhai (bhaiti, bhayek), dada, kaka/kokai | bhé, bhaīyā | sahodarayā, bæyā | bhāi (younger) dāi, dāju, dādā, dājai (elder | phral | bhrā, vīr, lala | bhullā (younger) bhaaji , dada (elder) | |
come | aadhey | āgachchhati | āv- | av- | yē | ā- | ā, āo, ājā | ach | aš- | a- | ai-, laa- | vall | yo, ye | āv- | āsantu, ās-, ā- | āsun, Aa | ah- | abhin,āu | enna, ena | āunu | āgachcha | āvel | āo | āunu , aenu |
cry | ruin | roditi, rauti, krandati | raḍ- | rodno, roosno | raḍ- | rō- | rō- | rōaɳ | kãd, kand-, rodan kor-, kann | xand-, xañ- | hañd- | wódun | rad- | ro- | kanda, Krandana | kaandna | kand- | kan- | aňdanawa, haňdanawa | runu | rodanam | rovel | rovanra | Tyon̄cyānu |
dark | andhiri | andhaḥkāra | andhārũ | gairo | andhāra, kāḷokha | andhera | hanerā | ôndʱah | ondhokar, ãdhar | andair | añdár, miyonda | anyí-got | andhakar, andhar, kalok | anhār, anhera | andhāra, Andhakara | andhār | andhar, ôndhôkar | anhār | aňduru, andhakara, kaluwara | andhyaro, andhakāra | andhakaaro | kalo | andhara | cukāpaṭṭa |
daughter | manje | duhitṛ, putrī | chhokḍi | sagi, sago, chori | leka, mulagī, poragī | beṭi | dʱī | dʱī | meye, beṭi | furi, zi | maia, zíi, futúni | koor | dhuv | dhiyā, beṭi, chhori, bitiya | jhiya | jhi, Tukil | ziyôri, zi (ziyek) | dhiā | duva, dū, diyaniya | chhori | nauni | chhai | Dhee | nauni |
day | dhuvas | divasa, dina | divas | dina, din | divas, din | din | din, dihara | ɖīhn | din, diboš | din | din | dóh | dis, din, divas | din | dina, Dibasa | Din | din | din | dinaya, dawasa | din | dives | denh, jehara | dus | |
do | kurun | kṛ-, karoti | kar- | kar- | kar- | kar- | kar- | kar- | kor- | xor- | hor- | kar | kor | kar- | kara- | kar- | kôr- | kôr | karanna | garnu | kerel | karo | karnu- , kornu- , kernu- | |
door | dhoru | dvāra, kapāṭa | darvāzo, kerel | kivand | dār, darvāzā | darvāzā, kavad | būha, dar, darvāza | darvāzo | dorja, duar | dorza, doroza | Duar, doroza | darwaaz, dār, daer ("window") | daar, kavad, bagilu | darvājā, kevadi | daraja, Dwara, kabata | Kapat, Dwar | duwar, dôrza | kebār | dora, dwāraya | dhoka | vudar | buha, dar | dār, darvāzā | |
die | maru | mṛ-, glah- | mar- | mar- | mar- | mar-, mar jā- | mar-, mar ja- | mar- | mor-, more ja- | mor-, mori za- | fóut | marun | mar | mu, mar ja | mar- | mar- | môr-, môri za- | môr | maranaya, märena | marnu | merel | marna | gudaknu | |
egg | bis | aṇḍa, ḍimba | iṇḍũ | ando | aṇḍa | anḍā | aṇḍā | aṇɖo, bedo | đim | dim, enda, boida | andha, dhim | thool | ande, motto | anḍā | anḍā, ḍimba | anḍā, ḍim, Gaar | kôni | anḍā | bittharaya, biju | aṇḍā | anro | anda, aana | andar | |
salt | lonu | kṣāra, sala, lavaṇa | mithu | loon | lavana/meeth | namak | lūn/nūn namak | lūn | lobon, nun | lobon, nun, nimox | nun | noon | mith, loni | noon/namak | labana, Luna | Noon | nimôkh, nun, lôbôn | nūn | lunu | nun | khar/lavan | lon | loon/noon | loonn |
earth | dhuniye, bin | pṛthvi, mahi, bhuvana, dharitrī | pruthvi | dharti, basudhara | pruthvi, dharani | prithvī, dhartī, zamīn | dhartī | dhartī | prithibi, duniya, dhora | dunwai, dunya, zomin | duniyai | daertī (voiced-aspirated /dh/ > /d/) | dhartari, zamin, bhui, pruthvi | jamīn, pirthvi | pruthibi, Dhara, Dhartiri, Dharani | Pruthi, Dharni | prithiwi | pruthuvi, polova, bhoomi, bima | prithivi | phuv | zameen, dharti | pirathi | ||
eye | loa | netra, lochna, akshi, chakshu | āñkh | aankharli | ḍoḷā, netra | āñkh | akh | akh | chokh, āñkhi, noyon | souk | suk | aéchh | dolo | āñkh | ākhi, netra, nayana | ayenk | sôku | ainkh | äsa, akshi, neth, nuwan | ānkhā | yakh | akh | āñkh | |
father | bappa | pitṛ, janaka, tāta | bāp | baap, kaako | pitā, vaḍil, bāba | bāp | piyō, pite, pita | piu, baba | baba, abba, bap | abba, abbu, baba, baf | abbá | mol, bab | bapuy, anna, aan | bāp, bābuji, pitāji | bāpa, bābā | bāpā, Bua | dêuta, bap (bapek) | bābū | piyā, thātthā | buwā, bāu, pitā | dad | abbā, piyoo | Bubā | |
fear | biru | bhaya, bhīti, traasa | bik, ḍar | bhau | bhītī, bhaya, ghābar- | ḍar, ghabrāhat | ḍar, bhau | ɖapu | bhoy, đor | dor | dor | dar | bhay | ḍar | ḍara, Bhaya | ḍar, Bhee | bhoy | bhay | baya, biya, bhīthiya | dar | dar, trash | darr | tatalāṭa , dor , der | |
finger | ingili | añguli, añguliyaka | āñgḷi | aangli | bōt | anguli, ungli | ungal, ungli | āngur | angul, onguli | angul | ouñl | ungij | bot, aangal | anguri | ānguthi | āngthi | aŋuli | āngur | äňgili | aunlā | angusht | ungil | angulee | |
fire | alifaan | agni, bhujyu | agni, jvaḷa | baste | āag, agni, jāḷa, vistava | āg | agg | bāh | agoon | agun | ooin | agénn, nār | ujo (from Sanskrit udyota), aag, agni | āgh | agni, nia | Joye, nia | zui | āig | agni, gini, gindara | āgo | manta | yag | bhaa | dipakāru , dimakāru |
fish | mas | matsya | māchhli | maachhali | māsā | machhlī | machhī | machhī | māch | mās | mas | gāda | nuste, masoli, jalkay | machhri | māchha | māch | mass | māch | masun, mathsya, mālu | māchā | machho | machhey | māchu , maachhee | |
food | kaana | bhojana, khadati, anna, posha(Na), āhāra, etc. | anna, khorāk, poshaṇ | khaano, lyojibhaya | jēvana, bhojan, anna, āhār | khānā, bhojan | khānā | khādho, ann, māni | khabar, khani | xani | hána, háñna | khyann | jevan, anna, khana | khana, bhojan | khādya, bhojana, āhāra | āhāra, Khed, Bhojan | ahar, khaiddyô, khuwa bostu | khenāi | āhāra, kæma, bojun, bhojana | khānā, anna, āhār | xal | roti-tukkur, khanra | naaj , jimman , jafhat , khadbad | |
go | dhey | gachchhati, yāti | jā- | jā- | jā- | jā- | jā- | vaɲ | ja- | za- | za- | gatçh | vach (from Vedic Ach) | jā | jāntu, Ja- | jāun, Ja- | zu-, za- | jāhin | yanna, yana | janu, jā | jal | vanj | janu, jā | |
god | raskalaange | deva, īśvara, parmeśvara, devata, bhagavān, prabhu | parmeshvar, dev, bhagvān | isar, bavji, dai | deva, parmeshwara, ishwara | bhagvān, parmeshvar, ishvar, khudā | pagvān, rab, ishwar, parmesar | bhagvān, parmeshvar, ishvar, khudā, sāin, mālik | bhogoban, ishhor, rob, khoda | bogowan, rob, xuda, | ixor, ila, rob | dai, divta, bagvān, parmeeshar | dev, sarvesvar | bhagvān, mālik, iswar, daiva, daiya | bhagabāna, ṭhākura, diyan | Maphru, bhagbān, Devta, | dewôta, bhôgôwan | bhagvān | devi, dēvathāvā | bhagawān, deutā, ishwor | devel | rab, mālik | dyāpta , dyabta | |
good | rangalhu | shobhna, uttama | sārũ | chokho | chāngle, chhān, uttama | achhā | changa | suʈʰo | bhalo | bala | bála | rut (moral "good"), jān (physical "good") | bare, chand, layak | badhiya, changa, achha | bhāla | Bane, bhāl | bhal | neek, neeman | hoňdhai, hoňda | raamro, asal | lachho, mishto | changa | khoob , bhalu , asad | |
grass | vina | tṛṇa, kusha | ghāsthāro | chaaro | gavata, taṇ | ghās | ghāh | ghãhu | ghaš | gash, gah | kérr | dramunn | taṇ (from Prakrit tiṇa, Sanskrit tṛṇa) | ghās | ghāsa | Jhaar, ghāns | ghãh | ghās, duib | thana, thruna | ghaas, dubo | char | ghā | ghasyood | |
hand | aiyy | hasta | hāth | haat | hāt | hāth | hath | hatʰu | haat | aat | árt | atth | haat | hāth | hāta | hāt, Bahu | hat | hāth | atha, hasthaya | hāt | vast | hat | hāth | |
head | boa | śira, mastaka, kapāla, mūrdhā | māthũ | sir, maatha | ḍoke, munḍake, mastaka, tāḷke | sir, shīsh | sir, sīs | matʰo | matha, shir | matha | matá | kalla | maate (from Prakrit matthao, Sanskrit Mastaka) | sīr, šīs, kapār | munḍa | Mud | mur, matha | māth, mūri | oluwa, sirasa, hisa | tauko, seer | shero | ser | Kapāḷa , mund | |
heart | hiyy | hrdaya | hruday | hivado, kaljo | hrudaya, kāḷij | dil, hriday, antar | dil, riday | dil | dil, hridoy, ontor | dil, ontor | dil | ryeda | Hadde, Hardey (From Sanskrit Hrdaya), Hrdaya | dil, hivara, jiyara | hrudaya | hurud | hridoy, hiya | hada, hardaya, hadawatha | hridaya, mutu | ilo | Dil | jikudu , dil , jitamo | ||
horse | as | ashva, ghotaka, hayi, turanga | ghoḍũ | ghodo | ghoda | ghoṛa | koṛa | ghoɽʱo | ghoɍa | ghuɍa | gúñra, gúra | gur | ghodo | ghoṛa | ghoda | ghoda | ghůra | ghodā | ashvaya, thuranga | ghodā | khoro, grast | ghora | guntt | |
house | ge' | gṛha, alaya | ghar | ghar, taaparo | ghar | kār | ghôr | ɡʱar, jaɡʱah | ghor | ghor | gor | ghar | ghar | ghar | ghara, Gruha | ghar | ghôr | ghôr, gedhara, gruha | gruhaya, geya, gedara, niwasa | ghar, griha | kher | ghar | gher , ghor , koodi , | |
hunger | banduhai | bubuksha, kshudhā | bhukh | bhukh | bhūk | bhūkh | pukh | bhūkhayal | bhukh, khida | bhuk | búk | bo'tchh | bhuk | bhūkh | bhoka | bhok | bhuk | bhūkh | kusagini, badagini | bhok | bokh | bhuk | bhūka , bhukkhi , bhūkhu | |
language | bas | bhāshā, vāNī | bhāshā | boli, zaban | bhāshā | bhāshā, zabān, baat | boli, zabān, pasha | ɓoli, bhasha, zabān | bhaša | basha, zobān, maat | báca | booyl, zabān | bhasha, bhas | bhākhā, boli, jubaan | bhāsā | bhāsā | bhaxa | bhāshā | bhashawa, basa | bhāshā | chhib | boli, zaban | bhasa bhaak | |
laugh (v.) | hunun | hāsa, smera | has- | has- | hās- | hãs- | hassa | kʰillu | haš, hãš | ash- | áñc- | assun | has- | has- | hãs- | hās- | hãh- | hôs | hina, sinaha, sina | hasnu | asal | khill | hasnu | |
life | dhiriulhun | jivana, jani | jivan, jindagi | bhav | jīvan, jīv | jīvan, zindagī | jindrī, jīvan, jind | zindagī | ɉibon, zindegi | zibon, zindegi | zibon, zindigi | zoo, zindagayn | jivit, jivan | jinigi | jibana, prāna | jiban | ziwôn | jiban | jeevithe, jivana | jeewan, jindagi | jivipen | zindgey | ji'ōna , jivan | |
moon | handhu | chandramā, soma, māsa | chandra, chāndo | chaan, chando | chandra | chandramā, chandā, chānd | chann, chānd | chanɖ | cãd, condro, chand | sand | san, zun | tçandram | chandra, chandrim | channa, channarma, mah | chandra, Janha | Jan, JanhaMamu | zunbai, zun, sôndrô | jonhi, chan | chandra, saňdu, haňda | chandramā, juun | chhon | chandr | joon, jon | |
mother | mamma | janani, mātṛ | mā, bā | mai, ma | āi, māi | mā | mā, mata, mai | māo, amma | ma, amma, ammu | ma, amma, ammu | amma | maeyj | amma, mai | matāri, māi, amma | mā, bou | mā | ai, ma | mé | mawa, amma, matha, mæni | āmā, muwā, mumā, mātā | dai | amma, maa | maa , bvai, jiya, maidi, maayadi, janadaaree | |
mouth | anga | ās, mukha | moḍhũ, mukha | moondo | tond, mukha | mūñh | mūñh, mukh | mūñh, vāt | mukh | muk | cuuñçi, gal | mūñh | tond, mukh | mūñh | mukha, Paati | Tund, Paati | mukh | mūh | mukha, kata | mukh, thutuno | khabaad , khaab , gichcha , gichchi , gichchoo , thuntheer , thobadu | |||
name | nan | nāma | nām | naam | nāv | nām | nā | nālo | nam | naam | nam | naav | naav | nā, nām | nāma, nā | nā | nam | nām | nama, nāmaya | nām | nav | nā | naun | |
night | reygandu | raatri, rajani, nishā, naktam, etc. | rāt, rātri, nishā | raati, raat | rātra | rāt, rātri, nishā | rāt | rāt | rat, ratri, nishi | rait, ratri, shob | rait, lailat | raath | raat, ratri | rāt | rāti, Ratri, Nishi | Rayet | rati | rāit | rāthriya, ræ | raati, raat, raatri | raat | rāt , raat | ||
open | hulhuvaa | uttana, udhatita | khullũ | khulyuda | ughad, khol | khulā | khulla, khol | khol | khulā | kulā | kúilla | khol | ughad, ukt-, udhaar | khullā | kholā | kholā | khula | khujal | harinna | khulla | rat | khulla | ughadnu, kholnu | |
peace | sul'ha | shānti | shānti, shāntatā | shaanti | shānti | shānti, aman | shānti, aman, sakūn | shānti, aman, sukoon | šanti | shanti | cánti | aman, shaenti | shanti, santatay | sānti-sakoon, aman | sānti | sānti | xanti | shānti | sāmaya, shāntiya | shaanti | kotor | aman, sakoon | tapp , juppi , Nimāṇi | |
place | than | stapana, sthala, bhu, sthāna | jagyā, sthaļ | jageh | sthān, sthal, jāga | sthān, jagah | thāñ, asthān | jaɠah, thāñ | ɉaega, sthan, zomin | zega, zaga, zomin | zaga | jaay | jaag, thal | jagah | jāgā | jāgā | thai | tthām | sthanaya, thäna | thaaun, jagga, sthal | than | jaga | thāṇ , jaga | |
queen | ranin | rāni, rājpatni | rāṇi, madhurāṇi | raani | rāni, rājmātā | rāni, malkā | rāni, malka | rāɳi | rani | rani | rani | māhraeny (also used for "newly-wed bride") | raani | rāni, begam | rāṇi | rāṇi | rani | rāni | räjina, dēvi, bisawa | rāni | rani, thagarni | ranri, malka | rāni , thakarvāṇi , thakaravāṇi | |
read | kiun | pathati, vachana | vānch- | baanch- | vāch- | paṛh- | paṛh- | paɽʱ- | poṛh- | for- | for- | parun | vajji/vaach | paṛh- | paḍh- | paḍdh- | pôrh- | pôdh | kiyawanna | padh- | chaduvu | parhnra, parh | padhnu , banchnu | |
rest | araamu | vishrāma | ārām | aaraam | vishrānti | ārām | arām | ārām | aram, bišrom | araam | aram, ziro | araam | aaraam | rām | ārām, bisrām | thāk, bisrām | aram, zirôni | arām | vishrāma, viwēka | ārām, bishrām | Araam | dhāmaun , ḍhyēmaun | ||
say | buney | vadati, braviti, brūté, | bōl- | bōl- | bōl-, mhaṇ-, sāng- | bōl, ākh, keh | bôl-, keh | chao | bol-, koh- | xo- | hoó-, bul- | bōl- | mhan, sang, ulay | bol-, kah- | kũhantu, Kuha, Kah- | Kahan, kaha, kah | kô | bāj | pawasanna, kiyanna | bhannu, bolnu | phenel | bol, aakh | bōlnu | |
sister | dhahtha | svasṛ, bhagini | bêhn | bain, bayee, beeri | bhaginī, bahīṇ | behn | pēn | bēɳ | bon, apa, didi | boin, afa | bóin, bubu, buu | baeynn | bhaini | bahin, didi, didiya | bhauṇi, bhagini | bahen | bhônti, bhôni | bôhin | sahodariya | bahini, didi | phen | bheinr | (younger sister) bhuli , bhulli (elder sister) deedi | |
small | kuda | alpa, laghu, kanishtha, kshudra | nāhnũ | nāhnũ | lahān, laghu | chhoṭā | nikka, chhoṭā | nanɖo | cho̊ŧo | huru, suto, kuti | cóñço | lokutt, nyika, pyoonth | Saan | chhoṭ, nanhi | choṭa, sana | chot, alap, tike | xôru, suti (for short) | chhot | chuti, podi, kudā | saano, chhoto | tikno, xurdo | nikka, chauta | chhvattu , ucchi | |
son | kalo | sunu, putra | chhokḍo | choora, betoo | mulgā, porgā | bēṭā | put, puttar | puʈ | chele, put, bēṭā | fua, fut, bēṭā | fut | nyechu, pothur | put | putt/chhora | pua, putra | Po, Pila | put (putek) | pūt | puthra, puthā, puthu | chhora, putra | chhavo | putr | naunu jayede | |
soul | furaana | ātmā, atasa | ātmā | aatma | ātmā | ātmā, rūh | ātmā, rūh | ātmā, rūh | ātmā, rūh | ruh, zaan | ruú, zan | āthmā | atma, jeev | rūh | ātmā | ātmā | atma | ātmā | ātmā | ātmā | di | rooh | ātmā | |
sun | iru | sūrya | sūraj, sūrya | suraj | sūrya | sūrya, sūraj | sūraj | siju | šurɉo | surzo, shurzo | beil, cújjo | siri | surya | sūraj | sūrjya | sūrjya | beli | beri, sūrj | ira, hiru, sūrya | sūrya, ghām | kham | sijh | ghām | |
ten | dhihayeh | dasha | das | das | dahā | das | das, daha | ɖaha | doš | dosh | doc | duh | dha | das | dasa | das | dôh | dôs | dahaya, dasa | das | desh | dah | d̪əs | |
three | thineh | trī, trayah, trīNi (neut. nom. pl.) | traṇ | tiin | tīn | tīn | tin, traiy | ʈeh | tin | teen | tin | t're | teen | tīn | tini | tīn | tini | tīn | thuna | tin | trin | trai | tīn | |
village | avah | grāma | gāñḍu | gaaon, dhaani | gāv, khēda | gāoñ | pinḍ, gāñ | ɠoʈʰ | gram, gaon | gau, geram | fara, gang, | gām | ganv | gāoñ-dehāt, jageer | gān, grāma | gān | gaû | gām | gama, gramaya | gaun | gav | dehat, jhoauk, vasti | gauṁ , gawn | |
want | beynun | ichhati, kankshati, amati, apekshati | joi- | chai- | pāhijē, havē | chāh- | chāh- | kʰap, chāh- | cha- | sa-, lag- | lag- | yatshun, kan'tchun | jaay- | chāh- | Chanunchi, Loduchi | Chounchen | bisar-, lag-, khuz- | chāhi | oone, awashyayi | chāhanā, ichhya | kamel, mangel | chah | chaandu , chainnun , chaindu , chaanu | |
water | fen | pāniya, jala | pāṇi | paani | pāṇi | pāni, jal | pāni, jal | pāṇi | pani, ɉol | fani | faní | poyn, zal (used for "urine" only) | udak, uda, pani, jal | pāni | pāṇi, jala | pāyeṇ | pani | pain | jalaya, wathura, pän | pāni, jal | pani | panri | pāṇi | |
when | kon iraku | kada, ched | kyahre | kadine | kēvhā, kadhee | kab | kad, kadoñ | kaɖahn | kokhon, kobe | kumbala, xobe | hoñótté | karr | kedna, kenna | kab | kebe | Ketebele, kebe | ketiya | kakhan, kahiyé | kawadhāda, kedinada | kahile | kana | kadanr | kabbi , kabaar | |
wind | vai | pavana, vāyu, vātā | havā, pavan | havaa | vāra | havā, pavan | havā, paun. vah | havā | bataš, haoa | batash | bathác, bouyar | tshath, hava | vaar | hāvā | pabana | Dhuka, haba, paban | bôtãh | basāt | hulan, sulan, pavana, nala | hāwā, batās | balval | hava, phook | bathaun , paun | |
wolf | hiyalhu | vrka, shvaka | shiyāl | bheriyo | kōlha | bhēṛhiyā | pēṛhiyā | ɡidʱar | nekre, shiyal | hiyal | cíal | vrukh | kolo | bhērhiyā | gadhiyā | Kulia | xiyal | siyār | vurkaya | bwānso | ruv | baghiyaar | bheriya | |
woman | anhenaa | nāri, vanitā, strī, mahilā, lalanā | mahilā, nāri | lugai, aurat | bāi, mahilā, stree | aurat, strī, mahilā, nāri | naar, mutiyar | māi | mohila, nari, stri | beti, mohila | maiñya | zanaan | baayal, stree | mehraru, aurat, janaani | stree, nāri | Mayeji | môhila, maiki manuh | maugi, stri | kānthāwa, gähäniya, sthriya, mahilāwa, lalanāwa, liya, laňda, vanīthāwa | mahilaa, naari, stree | juvli | aurat, treimat, zaal, zanaani | byaṭula , kajyāṇṇi | |
year | aharu | varsh, shārad | varash | saal, uun | varsh | sāl, baras, varsh | sāl, varah | sāl | bocchor, shal, boshor, | bosor, sāl | bosór | váreeh | varas | sāl, baris, barikh | barsa | baras, Bachar | bôsôr | barakh | varshaya, vasara | barsha | bersh | saal | mainn | |
yes / no | aan, labba, aadhe / noon, nooney | hyah, kam / na, ma | hā / nā | hon/koni | hōy, hō, hā / nāhi, nā | hāñ / nā, nahīñ | hāñ, āho / nā, nahīñ | hā/ na | hæ, ho, oi / na | ii, oe / na | ói / na | aa / ná, ma | Vayi/naa | hāñ / nā | han /Na | Hoye/nei | hôy / nôhôy | hô/nai | ow / næ | ho / hoina, la / nai | va / na | ha / na | hō, hāan / nā | |
yesterday | iyye | hyah, gatadinam, gatakāle | (gai-)kāl(-e) | kaal | kāl | kal | kal | kalla | (goto-)kal(-ke) | (goto-)khail, (goto-)khal, khal(-ke), khail(-ku) | hail | kāla, rāth | kaal | kālh | (gata-)kāli | gala kāli | (zuwa-)kali | kāilh | īyē | hijo | ij | kal | n'yāra , byāḷi | |
English | Dhivehi | Sanskrit | Gujarati | Rajasthani | Marathi | Hindi-Urdu | Punjabi | Sindhi | Bengali | Sylheti | Rohingya, Chittagonian | Kashmiri | Konkani | Bhojpuri | Odia | Kosli | Assamese | Maithili | Sinhala | Nepali | Pali | Romani | Saraiki (Southern Punjabi) | Garhwali (Garhwali) |
Interrogative pronouns
English | Maithili | Odia | Dhivehi | Sanskrit | Assamese | Kamtapuri | Bengali | Gujarati | Marathi | Hindustani | Punjabi | Sindhi | Sylheti | Chittagonian, Rohingya | Kashmiri | Nepali | Sinhala | Romani | Garhwali |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
who | Ke | kie | kaaku | kün, kai | kae | ke | koṇ, koṇa | kōṇa | kaun | kauna | xe | hon | ko | kavuda | kon | ku | |||
what | Ki, kathi | kana, kitho | keekey | ki, kih | ki | ki | śũ | kāya | kya | ki | čhā | kita | ki | ke | so | ki | |||
where | Kata | kouthi | konthaaku | kót, keni | kóṭe | kothay, koi | kya | kuṭhe | kahan | kithe | xoi, xano | hoçé | kithé | kaham | koheda | kaj | kakh , kakham , kanee | ||
when | Kakhan, kahiyé | kebe | kon iraku | ketia, kahani | kónbela, kónsomoe | kokhon, kobe | kyāre | kadhī | kab | kadom | kumbela, kunbala, xobe | hoñótté | kahile, kab | kavada | kana / keda | kadee | |||
why | Kié | keno ki , kana lagi , kitho lagi | keevve | kio, kelei | kene, ke | keno | sa mate | kā, kaina | kyun | kiun | xene, kitar lagi | kiá | kina | æyi | soske | kiley | |||
how | Kena | kemiti | kihineh | kene, kene (-koi/ke, -kua), kidore | keŋka, keŋkori | kemon, kibhabe | kai rite | kasē | kaise | kive | kila, xemne | keén | kasari | sar | kann , kanukvai , kanake | ||||
English | Maithili | Odia | Dhivehi | Sanskrit | Assamese | Kamtapuri | Bengali | Gujarati | Marathi | Hindustani | Punjabi | Sindhi | Sylheti | Chittagonian and Rohingya | Kashmiri | Nepali | Sinhala | Romani | Garhwali |
Personal pronouns
English | Dhivehi | Sanskrit | Maithili | Assamese | Bengali | Gujarati | Marathi | Hindustani | Punjabi | Sindhi | Sylheti | Chittagonian, Rohingya | Kashmiri | Konkani | Kamtapuri | Bhojpuri | Odia | Nepali | Romani | Garhwali |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
i | aharun | aham | hôm | moi | ami | huṁ, hu ,mein | mī | mein | maiṁ | maa | mui, ami | ãi, mui | aav | mui | haum | mu͂ | ma | me | mī | |
we | aharumen | hôm sôbh | ami | amra | ame,apane | āmhī | hum | asīṁ | asā | amra | añára | aami | hamra | aame | hāmī | amen | aamen | |||
you (inf) | kaley, theena | tõ | toi | tui | tu | tū | tu | Tusīṁ | tū | tui | tū | tui | tui | tu | taṁ | tu | tu | |||
you (mid frm) | × | tumi | tumi | tame | tūmhī | tum | Tusīṁ | tū | tumi | tuñí | tū | tui | tume | timī | tumen | tum | ||||
you (frm) | ahāñ | apuni | apni | āp, | āpaṅ | āp | Tusīṁ | tāhā | afne | oñne | tumi | tomra | aapaNa | tapāīṁ | tumen | taanu , āp | ||||
you (inf, pl) | kaleymen, thimeehun | tõ sôbh | tohõt | tora | tuae | Not used | Not used | tomra | tuáñra | Not used | Not used | tui | ||||||||
you (mid frm, pl) | × | tümalük | tomra | tamaru | tumlog | tumitain, tumra | tumi | tomra | tumemaane | timīharū | tumi | |||||||||
you (frm, pl) | ahāñ sôbh | apünalük | apnara | tameloko | āplog | afnain, afnara | tumi | tomrala | aapaNamaane | tapāīṁharū | āpi , taanui | |||||||||
he (mid frm) | eyna | o | xi | śe, ō | pelo | who | ho | he, ogu | ité | to | inae, unae | se | ū, unī, tinī | vov | ū | |||||
she (mid frm) | eyna | o | tai | śe, ō | peli | who | huā | tai, ogu | ití | ti | inae, unae | se | ū, unī, tinī | voj | ū | |||||
he (frm) | o | teü, tekhet | tini, uni | pelae | ve | tain, ein | uite | inae, unae | se | waha | ū | |||||||||
she (frm) | o | teü, tekhet | tini, uni | palie | tain, ein | inae, unae | se | wahāṁ | ū | |||||||||||
they (mid frm) | emeehun | o sôbh | xihõt | tara | pelaloko | wohlog | huā | tara | itará | taani | imra, umra | semaane | unīharū, tinīharū | von | vo | |||||
they (frm) | o sôbh | teülük, tekhetxokol | tahara | pela lokoe | ve | tara | iín | imrala, umrala | semaane | wahāṁharū | vo | |||||||||
English | Dhivehi | Sanskrit | Maithili | Assamese | Bengali | Gujarati | Marathi | Hindi | Punjabi | Sindhi | Sylheti | Chittagonian, and Rohingya | Kashmiri | Konkani | Kamtapuri | Bhojpuri | Odia | Nepali | Romani | Garhwali |
Numerals
Numerals | Sanskrit | Maithili | Marathi | Assamese | Bengali | Gujarati | Hindustani | Khortha | Sylheti | Rohingya |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
0 | sunna | Shunya | xuinno | śunno | śūny, sifar | ṭeip | śuinno | sifír | ||
1 | ek | ek | ek | ek | ek | aiṛī | ex | ek | ||
2 | du | dona | dui | dui | do | jauṛī, dauṛī, daunā | dui | dui | ||
3 | teen | teena | tini | tin | tīn | taiṛī, ṭainā | tin | tin | ||
4 | chāir | chara | sari | car | cār | ɡhūran, cārā | sair | sair | ||
5 | pāñch | paacha | pas | pac | pā̃c | cāyal, mācā | fas | fãs | ||
6 | chhô | Sahaa | soe, so | choe | che | caimpā, jheik | sóe | só | ||
7 | sāt | Saatha | xat | śat | sāt | ɡoiyain, jheɡ | śat, hat | há̃t | ||
8 | āth | Aatha | ath | aṭ | āṭh | bā̃ṛī, auṭhauī | aṭ | ãśṭo | ||
9 | nô | Nawu | no | noe | nau | sutauil, naubhī | noe | no | ||
10 | dôs | Dahaa | doh, dos | doś | das | sihaum | doś | doś | ||
Numerals | Sanskrit | Maithili | Marathi | Assamese | Bengali | Gujarati | Hindustani | Khortha | Sylheti | Rohingya |
See also
- Indo-Aryans
- Iranic languages
- Indo-Aryan migration
- Proto-Vedic Continuity
- The family of Brahmic scripts
- Linguistic history of the Indian subcontinent
- Indo-Aryan loanwords in Tamil
- Languages of Bangladesh
- Languages of India
- Languages of Pakistan
- Languages of Nepal
References
^ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2017). "Indo-Aryan". Glottolog 3.0. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History..mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output q{quotes:"""""""'""'"}.mw-parser-output code.cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:inherit;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .cs1-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-gray-alt-2.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .cs1-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-red-alt-2.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration{color:#555}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription span,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration span{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration,.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-right{padding-right:0.2em}
^ "Overview of Indo-Aryan languages". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 8 July 2018.
^ Standard Hindi first language: 260.3 million (2001), as second language: 120 million (1999). Urdu L1: 68.9 million (2001-2014), L2: 94 million (1999): Ethnologue 19.
^ Bengali or Bangla-Bhasa, L1: 242.3 million (2011), L2: 19.2 million (2011), Ethnologue
^ "världens-100-största-språk-2010". Nationalencyclopedin. Govt. of Sweden publication. Retrieved 30 August 2013.
^ Edwin Francis Bryant; Laurie L. Patton (2005). The Indo-Aryan Controversy: Evidence and Inference in Indian History. Routledge. pp. 246–247. ISBN 978-0-7007-1463-6.
^ ab Parpola, Asko (2015). The Roots of Hinduism: The Early Aryans and The Indus Civilization. Oxford University Press.
^ Kulshreshtha, Manisha; Mathur, Ramkumar (24 March 2012). Dialect Accent Features for Establishing Speaker Identity: A Case Study. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 16. ISBN 978-1-4614-1137-6.
^ Robert E. Nunley; Severin M. Roberts; George W. Wubrick; Daniel L. Roy (1999), The Cultural Landscape an Introduction to Human Geography, Prentice Hall, ISBN 0-13-080180-1,... Hindustani is the basis for both languages ...
^ "Urdu and its Contribution to Secular Values". South Asian Voice. Archived from the original on 11 November 2007. Retrieved 26 February 2008.
^ "Hindi/Urdu Language Instruction". University of California, Davis. Archived from the original on 3 January 2015. Retrieved 3 January 2015.
^ "Ethnologue Report for Hindi". Ethnologue. Retrieved 26 February 2008.
^ Otto Zwartjes Portuguese Missionary Grammars in Asia, Africa and Brazil, 1550-1800 Publisher John Benjamins Publishing, 2011
ISBN 9027283257, 9789027283252
^ Paul Thieme, The 'Aryan' Gods of the Mitanni Treaties. JAOS 80, 1960, 301–17
^ Matras (2012)
^ "History of the Romani language".
^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 25 March 2015.CS1 maint: Archived copy as title (link) Encyclopedia Iranica
^ "Romani (subgroup)". SIL International. n.d. Retrieved September 15, 2013.
^ https://www.ethnologue.com/subgroups/indo-aryan
^ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2017). "Kuswaric". Glottolog 3.0. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.
^ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2017). "Chinali–Lahul Lohar". Glottolog 3.0. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.
^ Masica (1991:94–95)
^ Masica (1991:95–96)
^ Masica 1991, pp. 23–27.
Further reading
.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{list-style-type:none;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>dl>dd{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-100{font-size:100%}
John Beames, A comparative grammar of the modern Aryan languages of India: to wit, Hindi, Panjabi, Sindhi, Gujarati, Marathi, Oriya, and Bangali. Londinii: Trübner, 1872–1879. 3 vols.
Cardona, George; Jain, Dhanesh, eds. (2003), The Indo-Aryan Languages, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-77294-5.- Madhav Deshpande (1979). Sociolinguistic attitudes in India: An historical reconstruction. Ann Arbor: Karoma Publishers.
ISBN 0-89720-007-1,
ISBN 0-89720-008-X (pbk).
Chakrabarti, Byomkes (1994). A comparative study of Santali and Bengali. Calcutta: K.P. Bagchi & Co.
ISBN 81-7074-128-9
- Erdosy, George. (1995). The Indo-Aryans of ancient South Asia: Language, material culture and ethnicity. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.
ISBN 3-11-014447-6.
Ernst Kausen, 2006. Die Klassifikation der indogermanischen Sprachen (Microsoft Word, 133 KB)- Kobayashi, Masato.; & George Cardona (2004). Historical phonology of old Indo-Aryan consonants. Tokyo: Research Institute for Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa, Tokyo University of Foreign Studies.
ISBN 4-87297-894-3.
Masica, Colin (1991), The Indo-Aryan Languages, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-29944-2.- Misra, Satya Swarup. (1980). Fresh light on Indo-European classification and chronology. Varanasi: Ashutosh Prakashan Sansthan.
- Misra, Satya Swarup. (1991–1993). The Old-Indo-Aryan, a historical & comparative grammar (Vols. 1–2). Varanasi: Ashutosh Prakashan Sansthan.
- Sen, Sukumar. (1995). Syntactic studies of Indo-Aryan languages. Tokyo: Institute for the Study of Languages and Foreign Cultures of Asia and Africa, Tokyo University of Foreign Studies.
- Vacek, Jaroslav. (1976). The sibilants in Old Indo-Aryan: A contribution to the history of a linguistic area. Prague: Charles University.
External links
The Indo-Aryan languages, 10-25-2009
The Indo-Aryan languages Colin P.Masica
Survey of the syntax of the modern Indo-Aryan languages (Rajesh Bhatt), February 7, 2003.